U.S. University Research--Societal Contributions Over the years, researchers at America's major universities have made many significant contributions to society. Following is a list of some of those contributions, compiled by the Association of American Universities from information supplied by some of its members and other institutions. It should be emphasized that this compilation is hardly all-inclusive; it is intended simply as an illustration of the breadth and depth of the contributions that have been made by America's universities, based on the records of some of those institutions. Among the highlights, university researchers: Developed the Recombinant DNA technique, which has revolutionized the field of biology and spawned the modern biotechnology industry (Stanford University, University of California, San Francisco, 1974). Out of this breakthrough, there have been created such artificial substances as human growth hormone, interferon, interleukin II, hepatitis B vaccine, and blood clotting and blood dissolving substances. Pioneered the development of satellite camera technology, which has led to precise photography important not only in space exploration but also in such areas as weather forecasting, geology, and military surveillance (University of Rochester, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1960s); and performed the fundamental research that led to development of the Global Positioning System (GPS), which allows a ground-based receiver to pinpoint its location on the planet within a few hundred feet (Columbia University, 1938, Harvard University, 1949; and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1949.) Revolutionized agriculture by developing vaccines and treatments that have eliminated or controlled hundreds of plant and poultry and livestock diseases, and by developing high-yielding, disease-resistant fruits, vegetables, and grains (many institutions). Created the first digital computer (Iowa State University and the University of Pennsylvania, 1939- 1940) and played leading roles in all phases of subsequent computer processing and microprocessing developments (many institutions). Developed the first atom smasher (University of California, Berkeley, 1931) and pioneered and developed the science of nuclear physics, creating the modern age of nuclear power, weapons, and medicine (many institutions). Laid the groundwork for space exploration by developing the fundamental principles and technology of rocketry (Clark University, 1910s to 1930s), and played a key role in America's space program from the beginning to the present (many institutions). Other specific societal contributions of U.S. university research are categorized below: Health and Safety Health Care Diagnosis and Treatment Developed the standard malaria preventive pill (University of Chicago, 1950), the Salk polio vaccine (University of Pittsburgh, 1954), and the first vaccines against bacterial meningitis (University of Rochester, 1985) and salmonella (Washington University in St. Louis, 1987). Invented and refined the world's first artificial cell, which is used in hospitals worldwide to remove toxic materials from patients' blood (McGill University, 1957 and after). Created the Pap smear test for detecting cancers of the female reproductive organs (University of California, San Francisco; Cornell University, 1932-42), and showed that the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test was an accurate screen for early prostate cancer, the most common cancer in American men (Washington University in St. Louis, 1993). Initiated the technique of Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scanning, a sophisticated medical imaging tool that can show actual brain or heart function over time and that already has provided key information that may help in diagnosing Huntington's disease, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and many other illnesses (Washington University in St. Louis; University of California, Los Angeles, 1970s). Developed the first successful blood tests for cancer (Columbia University, 1936), laid the groundwork for radiation treatment of cancer (University of Rochester, 1940s), and pioneered the use of chemotherapy in treating cancer patients (Yale University, 1942). Performed the experimental and mathematical analysis of the human middle ear that led to the current concept of sound transmission by the middle ear and provided the physical basis for diagnosing many hearing disorders (Syracuse University, mid-1950s through 1970s). Pioneered long-term dialysis for chronic kidney failure (University of Washington, 1960), and developed Continuous Ambulatory Peritoneal Dialysis, which allows individuals to receive dialysis at home (University of Missouri-Columbia, 1970s). Originated and continue to refine the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the most widely used psychological test in the world, which is critical in the evaluation of psychiatric patients (University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, 1930s to present). Conducted seminal research on the effects of institutionalization on physically and mentally disabled individuals that led to widespread deinstitutionalization and inclusion of people with disabilities in schools and community life (Syracuse University, 1970s and 1980s). Performed the basic research that led to development of nasal spray vaccines, such as Flumist, which are revolutionizing the battle against influenza (University of Michigan, 1997). Developed the antibiotics Bacitracin (Columbia University, 1943) and Streptomycin (Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 1952); developed the chemical synthesis of penicillin (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1957), synthetic insulin (University of Pittsburgh, 1964), and the first antihistamine, Benadryl (University of Cincinnati, 1940s). Developed the science of birth-control pharmaceuticals, which led to the birth control pill (Clark University, Pennsylvania State University, 1930s); invented the intrauterine birth control device (IUD) (University at Buffalo-State University of New York, 1959). Through study of microorganisms in human saliva and tooth decay, determined that daily tooth brushing and flossing would reduce cavities (Tulane University, 1948), and demonstrated the effectiveness of stannous fluoride in helping to prevent tooth decay, a revolutionary advance in preventative dentistry (Indiana University, 1954). Pioneered the biological approach to psychiatric illness (Washington University in St. Louis, 1960s and 1970s). Identified the cause of rheumatic fever (Columbia University, 1920s), isolated the first virus found to be a cause of the common cold (Tulane University, 1966), and discovered that the bacteria Helicobacter pylori is the cause of stomach ulcers (University of Virginia, early 1980s). Discovered Vitamin E (University of California, San Francisco, 1923) and Vitamin C (University of Pittsburgh, 1932); did the research on vitamins which led to development of federal standards for Recommended Daily Requirements for Human Nutrition (California Institute of Technology, 1930s-40s). Pioneered research into human sexual behavior (Indiana University, 1948). Developed the first synthetic morphine, providing the first reliable source of this drug and paving the way for development of other synthetic painkillers and anesthetics (University of Rochester, 1952). DNA Discoveries and Treatments Discovered the genetic basis of cystic fibrosis (University of Michigan, 1989); found the location of the gene that causes Lou Gehrig's disease (Northwestern University, 1991 to 1996), and identified the first genetic mutation known to cause familial colorectal cancer, and invented a simple blood test to identify it and allow carriers to take measures to guard against it (Johns Hopkins, 1997). Identified and cloned the "clock" gene, and pioneered the understanding of how circadian clocks in humans and other species function and are regulated by environmental factors (Northwestern University, 1997). Developed the first automated DNA sequencer (University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1984). Pioneered the field of prenatal diagnosis by developing the molecular and clinical techniques that allowed the first fetal tests to identify genetic blood diseases (University of California, San Francisco, 1976). Surgical Breakthroughs Revolutionized the treatment of major burn injuries by developing the first skin-grafting device (University of Kansas, 1938). Performed the first open heart surgery and developed the first heart-lung machine to be used during open heart surgery (Case Western Reserve University, 1935 and 1950s). Performed the first successful life-saving defibrillation of the human heart and developed the method of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) (Case Western Reserve University, 1947 and 1952). Pioneered modern laser eye-surgery (Stanford University, 1963). Developed the first external heart pacemaker (Harvard University, 1952), and spearheaded and perfected development of the implantable heart pacemaker (University at Buffalo-State University of New York, 1958-60; Johns Hopkins University, 1972; Pennsylvania State University, 1977). Performed the first human surgical implants (Emory University, 1998) of neurotrophic electrodes (developed at Georgia Institute of Technology) that allow speech-impaired patients to communicate by computer. Developed bone marrow transplants for leukemia (University of Washington, 1957); developed the liver transplant (University of Colorado, Boulder, 1967), and L-DOPA therapy for Parkinson's disease patients (Columbia University, 1967). Developed the artificial knee joint (University of California, Irvine, 1972), the artificial wrist (University of Arizona, 1974), and an artificial hand that allows a user to rely on original nerve pathways and gain natural control over at least three independent artificial fingers (Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, 1998). Pioneered, in collaboration with IBM scientists, the world's first active robot-assisted surgery using "Robodoc," a device programmed for cutting bone to accommodate artificial hip transplants. Conceived in 1985, Robodoc was first used on a human patient in 1992 (University of California, Davis, 1985 and after). Performed the first blood transfusion (Case Western Reserve University, 1905); developed procedures for safely storing and shipping blood supplies, making possible the modern blood bank (University of Iowa, 1938); and developed a synthetic blood substance which will permit treatment for hemophiliacs without the risk of transmitting blood-borne disease (University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, 1980s). Public Health and Safety Invented the child-proof safety cap for pharmaceutical products (Duke University, 1950s); did the research which led to automobile child restraint laws (Johns Hopkins University, 1979) as well as the research which led to new federal automobile brake-light standards (University of Illinois, Urbana- Champaign, 1980s) and motorcycle safety and helmet laws (University of Southern California, 1981). Developed the guidelines that formed the basis for the first Federal Pure Food and Drug Act (Pennsylvania State University, early 1900s). Pioneered the use of genetic analysis to help fight disease epidemics by enabling doctors to trace their origins and evolution; the analysis is also providing new insights into the order and timing of evolutionary processes and relationships among species (University of Texas at Austin, 1990s). Demonstrated that rebreathing can be a cause of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), helping prompt the Consumer Product Safety Commission to ban the use of bean bag cushions for infants, and helping spur a 1994 national campaign that urged parents to place infants to sleep on their backs or sides. This has reduced significantly the frequency of SIDS in the United States (Washington University in St. Louis, 1991). Improving Society Developed the first nationwide emergency hotline and referral center for the deaf, which offers help with medical and other emergencies, and designed a computer system which allows quadriplegics to read books, use a telephone and control other basic elements of their environment without assistance (University of Virginia, 1981 and 1986). Did the research and policy formation that led to development of the federal Social Security and Civil Service employment programs (University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1930s). Developed a sophisticated, computerized crime-mapping system, being used by the City of Chicago police department, which aids investigations and crime prevention by tracking crimes by date, time, location, and other characteristics (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1987 to present). Developed computer software that allows blind musicians to compose directly to Braille (University of Arizona, 1990). Developed a vaccine against feline leukemia virus, the number one killer of the nation's most popular pet (Ohio State University, 1980s). Communication Tools and Techniques Invented the sound motion picture (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign,1922); developed the FM radio (Columbia University, 1939); and played leading roles in the development of television (many institutions). Pioneered development of digital signal processing, which is used today in CDs, cellular phones, computer hard drives, new automobiles, medical diagnosis equipment, radar, and sonar (Rice University, 1969). Developed Mosaic, the first popular graphical Web browser (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1992). Created high-speed computer graphics systems, "Pixel Planes" and "Pixel Flow" that are widely used in modeling, medical imagery, and virtual-reality simulations in the automotive and aeronautics industries (University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, 1974 to the present). Initiated the only national research center that reports on government, news media and societal actions affecting the flow of information throughout the world (University of Missouri-Columbia, the present). Developed the research techniques for modern public opinion polling (University of Iowa, 1920s). Developed a survey of consumers' spending and saving decisions that has proven to be an accurate indicator of the future course of the nation's economy and has become the basis for the U.S. Department of Commerce's index of leading indicators (University of Michigan, 1946 to the present). Education and the Humanities Pioneered successful new methods of teaching disabled children, so that they can function more effectively in normal environments (University of Kansas, 1965 to present). Developed the Dick and Jane reading series that, between the 1930s and the 1970s, taught nearly 85 million elementary school children to read (the University of Missouri-Columbia, University of Chicago, Case Western Reserve University, 1947). Conducted the first major, large-scale research into conditions of inequality in American schools, which resulted in the landmark report, "Equality of Educational Opportunity" (Vanderbilt University and Johns Hopkins University, 1960). Performed a series of pioneering experiments to improve the education of children from low-income families that formed the basis for the federal Head Start and other, large scale child development programs (Vanderbilt University, 1960s through 1970s). Developed Carbon-14 dating, which has revolutionized the ability to date ancient artifacts (University of Chicago, 1949) and originated the science of dendrochronology, or tree-ring analysis, that provides information on past weather patterns which can help predict future major climate changes such as global warming (University of Arizona, 1937). Undertook comprehensive studies by teams of sociologists to debunk crippling myths about the American South and revolutionized social theory about the region (University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, 1920s and 1930s). Made possible the accurate dating of archaeological excavations in the Holy Land by establishing a firm chronology of Middle Eastern pottery, and confirmed the authenticity of the Dead Sea Scrolls, speeding acceptance as genuine of these earliest biblical manuscripts (Johns Hopkins University, 1938 and 1948). Developed a computer data base which, when completed, will contain the text of every ancient Greek manuscript in existence, giving scholars and students around the world instant access to materials formerly accessible to only a few (University of California, Irvine, 1972 to present). Began publication of the first dictionary of the Sumerian language, a massive, 20-volume project on the first known written language (University of Pennsylvania, 1977 to present), and began developing the first comprehensive dictionary of Aramaic, the language presumably spoken by Jesus (Catholic University, 1980s to present). Discovered the remnants of 10,000-year-old bark sandals in an Oregon cave, pushing back the date of known human habitation in the Great Basin by thousands of years (University of Oregon, 1938). Initiated preservation of two dozen endangered languages, whose use is threatened by such factors as modern economics, communications and travel (University of California, Los Angeles, 1990s). Public Infrastructure Spearheaded development of modern design codes for concrete buildings and bridges through research into concrete strength and durability, and refinement of design techniques (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1900 to 1970s). Created the Richter Scale and the modern science of seismology which not only measures, but also increasingly makes possible the prediction of earthquakes (California Institute of Technology, 1920s- 30s); pioneered and continue to conduct development of technologies to help buildings and other structures better withstand earthquakes (California Institute of Technology; University at Buffalo- State University of New York; University of California, Berkeley; University of Southern California). Pioneered the chlorinated water purification system that eventually was adopted by every major municipal and industrial water supply system in the U.S. and many other parts of the world (Johns Hopkins University, 1926), and discovered the process of reverse osmosis, which is used in the desalinization of seawater (University of Florida, 1950s). Developed the first program for studying and analyzing development along the East and Gulf coasts of the U.S., in an effort to mitigate hurricane damage (Duke University, 1980s). Product Design and Manufacture Paved the way for major advances in modern chemistry and molecular biology and for the creation of hundreds of synthetic products by determining the nature of the chemical bond: the way atoms link up to form molecules in both living and non-living systems, (California Institute of Technology, 1930s); laid the groundwork for the development of modern high-strength materials through research into the atomic and molecular structure of metals (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1930s). Conducted the first scientific research into the design of airplane and ship propellers (Stanford University, 1890s); conducted pioneering studies associated with the theory of manned flight (Catholic University, early 1900s); developed the principles of airplane design and flight which helped establish the U.S. aircraft industry, including the modern jet plane (California Institute of Technology, 1930s). Developed a computer technique for calculating airflow that simplifies the process of aircraft design by reducing the need for costly and time-consuming wind-tunnel testing (Princeton University, 1986). Created bioglass, the first man-made substance to bond with human tissue (University of Florida, 1976). Revolutionized the design and manufacture of electronic devices through development of the "physics of failure" approach to reliability, and the subsequent creation of software to implement this approach (University of Maryland, 1980s). Invented the technology (fluidized-bed reactor) which made possible modern, high-volume production of gasoline (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1930s). Have helped "shape up" the trucking industry and improved fuel efficiency by engineering more aerodynamic cab bodies and other drag reduction devices (University of Maryland, College Park, 1950s to the present). Developed a mathematical formula to study repeating electronic patterns that became a key tool during World War II for interpreting radar and sonar signals. The formula was adopted around the world after World War II not only for interpreting radar but also for designing electronic circuits (University of Missouri-Columbia, 1938-late 1960s). Environmental Quality Demonstrated the health hazards of lead pollution from automobile exhaust, which helped lead to federal automobile pollution control standards (California Institute of Technology, 1960s); and discovered that freon propellant in aerosol spray cans was damaging the ozone layer, leading to the banning of fluorocarbons from American spray cans (University of California, Irvine, 1974). Developed a quick, economical screening test for possible environmental carcinogens, which is now widely used as the first line of defense in identifying potential cancer-causing agents (University of California, Berkeley, 1970s). Documented the existence and significance of the acid rain problem in North America (Cornell, 1972). Created a new process for spray-painting cars, furniture, and appliances which reduces air pollution from these sources by as much as 70 percent (Johns Hopkins University, 1989). Compiled the first genetic database of African elephant tusks; information contained in the database will allow ivory to be traced, which will help stop ivory poaching and preserve the species (Washington University in St. Louis, 1990). Developed the robotic machines used to clean up hazardous radioactive waste at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant site (Carnegie Mellon University, early 1980s). Invented the first all-plastic battery. This rechargeable and environmentally friendly power source is lightweight, capable of being molded to fit into awkward places, and able to operate in extremes of heat or cold (Johns Hopkins University, 1996). Developed metal-accumulating plants that can effectively remove toxic metals from contaminated soil. The plants can be safely incinerated along with the toxins they absorb (Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, early 1990s). Agriculture and Food Safety Pioneered modern irrigation and soil conservation techniques (many institutions). Identified the hidden elements of healthy animal diets, later called vitamins, and discovered that the vitamin content of food could be fortified through ultraviolet radiation. This led to improved diets and the eradication of rickets, a debilitating bone disease once common among children (University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1907 and 1923). Developed the principles of no-till farming that changed the face of agriculture in the Great Plains and worldwide (University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1938-1953). Fueled the growth of the multimillion-dollar California wine industry by developing dozens of new grape varieties and improved methods of growing and handling vines and making wines (University of California, Davis, 1960s to present). Developed the process for making frozen concentrated orange juice, in collaboration with the Florida Department of Citrus, and invented Gatorade, the world's first and most popular sports drink (University of Florida, 1945 and 1965). Pioneered the world's first genetically engineered tomato plants, designed to protect themselves from invading viruses. The technique has been applied to other staple crops, such as rice, wheat, and cassava, to increase their resistance to viral diseases (Washington University in St. Louis, 1987). Developed the process of hydrocooling harvested vegetables, increasing the maximum time between harvest and sale (University of Florida, 1923), and developed the freeze drying process for preserving foods (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1960s-70s). Developed numerous farming technologies that have improved crop harvesting, including a tomato harvester which has been credited with saving California's tomato industry (University of California, Davis, 1950 and after). Created the first antitoxin for botulism poisoning (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1919), and did the research which led to the adoption of safety standards for the modern canning industry when its existence was threatened by botulism (University of California, San Francisco, 1920s). Developed improved varieties of sorghum-the primary food source for 300 million people in sub- Saharan Africa-that are parasite-resistant, drought-tolerant, more nutritious, and easier to digest (Purdue University, early 1960s to the present). Improved the safety of fresh milk by developing a sterilization system that does not require refrigeration during transportation or storage (University of Maryland, College Park, 1975), and created a new process for milk pasteurization that uses electron beam technology, instead of heat (University of Missouri-Columbia and Iowa State University, with Natick Army Laboratory, 1999). Exploring the World and Beyond Created a new form of matter called Bose-Einstein condensate, which has led to development of atomic lasers for building nano-scale structures and is expected to aid in understanding superconductivity, quantum mechanics and gravity (University of Colorado at Boulder, 1995). Through the study of meteorites, showed that the basic chemicals of life are common throughout the universe. This led to research on the origins of life that became the foundation of NASA's experiments for detecting life on Mars (University of Maryland, College Park, 1980s). Conducted the research that indicates the universe is not only expanding but doing so at an accelerating rate (University of California, Berkeley, 1998), and performed the research that shows a monstrous black hole may be at the center of the Milky Way galaxy (University of California, Los Angeles, 1998). Performed the research that led to detection of the neutrino, a ghostlike subatomic particle that, although extremely tiny and invisible to the human eye, may account for the majority of the universe (University of California, Irvine, 1990s). Pioneered the understanding of the early history of life on earth and showed that primitive life existed on earth 3.46 billion years ago (University of California, Los Angeles, 1987). Updated by the Association of American Universities, March 2000